Poverty, Education and Health Care Essay Example for Free

Poverty, Education and Health Care Essay Abstract Poverty and education play an important role in access to health care. A low socioeconomic status influences the health of people. This paper provides a general overview of how poverty and education determines access to health care. It provides a description of the consequences of poverty and education on health care accessibility. Finally it provides solutions as how to address the issue. The link between poverty, education and access to medical care has received considerable attention. Health influences all the activities of an individual. All societies are concerned with varying levels of health among their members. They are also concerned about marginalized sections of society have access to health care. Poverty and its effects on society People belonging to poor communities have poorer health outcomes. They have less access to primary care as compared with more affluent residents. They are also less likely to have health insurance and regular doctor. They are more likely to have chronic health problems. They are more likely to get hospitalized for conditions which can be detected and treated at an early stage. Despite an expansive public insurance program these health problems remain. At least 18 percent of Americans are without medical insurance. This means a total of 44 million are without health insurance out of a population of 300 million. An estimated 87 percent of people are covered by government or employee based health care insurance (Cutler, 2004). People with low socioeconomic status face many challenges in maintaining their health. They have a high mortality rate. They are more likely to be suffering from some disease. They have limited health care resources. They live in poor environmental situations. The United States has one of the world’s most impressive standards of living. At least 32 million Americans live below the poverty line. In addition to poor people an estimated 50 million people live in poverty like conditions. Health risk factors like smoking, obesity and sedentary lifestyle are found in poor Americans (Cutler, 2004). They have a higher prevalence of disability and chronic illness. They have a shorter life expectancy. Children belonging to poor families are more likely to be malnourished. Many poor Americans live in houses which have lead paint. This can cause growth problems in children. Poor people eat inexpensive food which is fatty and lacks important nutrients. Poor people cannot afford health insurance coverage. Patients postpone their medical care and they are more likely to go without prescription medicines. Low income workers are at the highest risk of being uninsured because they are ineligible for Medicaid coverage. They work in low wage jobs that do not offer insurance. They cannot afford the high premiums associated with health care insurance. The lack of a usual source of care is another barrier to seek adequate health care. The challenges associated with poverty create conditions that can diminish lifesavings, lower learning ability and reduce physical, mental and emotional well being. All of these factors are a threat to people’s health. Urban areas in the United States have many health care facilities. However poor people cannot make use of these services. The major challenge is the high cost of visiting doctors, medicine and hospital care. Social factors like language barriers and prejudice by providers also hinder the accessibility of health care by poor people. The government also faces challenges in trying spreading health education in poor communities. Health care services are vital for the survival and livelihood of poor people. Illness persists in poor people. It stops people from working and forces them to sell assets. They fall into debt and are lead into a vicious cycle of dependency and poverty. Failure to treat themselves leads to illness and disability. This further reduces the ability to work in poorer households. People living in rural areas are forced to bear high transport costs. This is difficult and expensive for them. The lack of local health centers in rural areas further hinders the ability of poor people to access adequate health care (Crichton, 1997). The huge time that takes for poor people to obtain treatment is one of the greatest barriers which they face. Time away from jobs results in lost income. Health services run by governments are usually inefficient and are characterized by neglect. The quality of service is low. There is shortage of staff. There is no proper medicine and equipment. In many countries there is no safe water to drink. In developing countries there are high costs to health care. Besides the official fees there are corrupt staff members who demand bribes and fees in return for ordinary services. These services can include registration, tests and being given medicine. They can also pressurize a sick person to make unnecessary visits to the hospital. Payment methods are not flexible in many developing countries. Payment usually has to be made in advance and in cash. This causes considerable hardship for poor people (Crichton, 1997). Â  Education and its effects on society Education also plays an important role in health care. Many people with low literacy cannot read and understand directions written on medications. They cannot complete medical consent forms. They have problems in accessing health care and dealing with health related issues. Health literacy is the ability to read and understand words and procedures related to health care. It consists of comprehension, communication and appropriate action. The direct effects of low health literacy are medication errors. The indirect issues can include insurance issues, accessibility to health care and poor health behavior (Shi, 2003). Low health literacy affects people of all ages, races, educational levels and social classes. It is driven by a variety of factors. It is a multidimensional issue. Understanding written materials has been part of extensive health literacy in the past few years. Sensitivity to culture has also become part of health literacy due to the diverse population of the world. Messages and images have to be tailored to meet the diverse beliefs and values of people. Health literacy is concerned with understanding the information necessary to manage health (Shi, 2003). It is estimated that at least 90 million people in the United States cannot read. The health of such people is at risk. Ethnic minority groups are also affected by low health literacy. Older patients, recent immigrants, people with chronic diseases and those with low income are also vulnerable to having low health literacy. Many people with average or strong literacy skills have found medical terminology and concepts confusing. There are many health consequences associated with a low literacy level. Research has found that at least one third of patients have health problems because of failure in taking prescription medication correctly. People with low health literacy cannot comply with prescribed treatments and self care routines. They also have a high rate of failure in seeking preventive care. They are more at risk for hospitalization. They lack the skills to successfully move in the complex healthcare system (Shi, 2003). Patients with low health literacy have glycemic control. They are also more likely to report eye problems caused by diabetes. The annual health care costs for individuals with low health literacy are five times higher than those with higher health literacy skills. People with low health literacy are more likely to use health care services. Additional health care expenditures result from low health literacy skills. People cannot feel part of the social structure. They are also vulnerable to anxiety and other mental disorders. They can also alienate other people. Research has also found that people with low literacy levels are more vulnerable to die. While federal and state lawmakers continue to debate about how to increase access to health care, some of them are thinking of reinsurance system which might be affordable for poor people. In order to understand the concept of insurance it is essential that policy makers understand the concepts, benefits and limits of reinsurance mechanism. Reforms in Health care Reinsurance in health care refers to risk transfer or risk pooling arrangements. These are designed to remove the barriers which low income workers and minorities face when accessing health care. Risk transfer arrangements can help in this matter but they cannot lower health care costs. Policy makers must design policies which encourage participation from insurers and remove incentives to transfer costs to taxpayers. Reinsurance is defined as an insurance company buying insurance itself. The primary insurer is protected against the rare set of circumstances which might produce losses that it cannot fund on its own. Property and casualty insurance are the areas where reinsurance has been successfully implemented. Companies working in these areas can take heavy losses due to natural disasters in a short time period. This induces insurers to buy reinsurance on the commercial market. Poor people cannot afford health insurance coverage. This directly affects their ability to access medical care. Patients postpone their medical care and they are more likely to go without prescription medicines. Low income workers are at the highest risk of being uninsured because they are ineligible for Medicaid coverage (Kling, 2004). Public health plays a vital role in countering the effects of poverty on health care. It also minimizes the disparities in health by income. Public health policies protect the health of the population. It also plays an important role in reducing contagious diseases and providing low cost health services to marginalized sections of society. There are many examples of public health functions. Immunizing babies, improving sanitation, combating sexually transmitted diseases, protecting the environment and containing tuberculosis are some of the public health functions. Public health focuses on reallocating resources to communities which have low incomes. The US government has a network of community health centers, public clinics, school based clinics and health clinics for low income workers, migrants, minorities and homeless people. The National Health Service Corps is an organization which provides services and places physicians in vulnerable communities. Public health services also focus on specific diseases like tuberculosis. They also increase immunization efforts against this disease. They provide services which improve the health of low income families. Neighborhoods are cleaned from lead paint, pollution control and nutrition programs are launched. Women and children are fed through special programs. Poor people with low income and education have poorer health outcomes. They have less access to primary care as compared with more affluent residents. They are also less likely to have health insurance and regular doctor. They are more likely to have chronic health problems (Kling, 2004). Medicaid is the largest public programs that have improved access to health care. It provides health services to low income population. It finances health and long term care insurance for over 40 million low income Americans. Before Medicaid the poor people were essentially without any medical care. They relied on charity of physicians and hospitals. Public hospitals and clinics were also visited by poor people. Medicaid has made health services available to poor people. It has improved their health status and access to quality care. It has also created satisfaction amongst the poor people. Uninsured poor people lag well behind those people who have coverage with Medicaid. People with Medicaid have even fared comparably with private insurance (Kling, 2004). Despite the fact that these programs offer valuable assistance to low income populations, the deficits in access and coverage faced by low income population cannot be easily overcome. Increase in income does produce a substantial contribution to removing health differentials. However this is the need for insurance coverage and support for community based resources to eliminate health disparities by income. Poverty is hazardous for the physical and mental well being of an individual. Low income and homeless people are poor physical functions. They have a high prevalence of health risk factors and chronic health conditions. They also are more vulnerable to depression and other mental disorders. Research has shown that people living in vulnerable communities have a higher rate of being diagnosed with mental disorders as compared with more affluent communities (Kling, 2004). There is a need for prevention, intervention and treatment of diseases for poor people. Welfare reform cannot succeed without taking into account the special health problems of poor people and children. Poverty is associated with depression and other symptoms. It contributes to depression. People with insufficient personal support have no assistance in raising children. They live under the chronic stress of having children but little money to support them. They are at a higher risk for depression. There is a strong link between single-parent status, responsibility for young children, social isolation, and lack of social supports as well as to poverty. Welfare recipients have many barriers towards employment. They have low skills, substance abuse, health limitation or children with chronic medical conditions. They have serious forms of barriers. They have also high level of distress. They seek help from general medical, specialized and human service sources. Poor people with low income and education have poorer health outcomes. They have less access to primary care as compared with more affluent residents. They are also less likely to have health insurance and regular doctor. They are more likely to have chronic health problems. They are more likely to get hospitalized for conditions which can be detected and treated at an early stage. Despite an expansive public insurance program these health problems remain. At least 18 percent of Americans are without medical insurance. This means a total of 44 million are without health insurance out of a population of 300 million. An estimated 87 percent of people are covered by government or employee based health care insurance. Rising health care costs have become unbearable in the world. This is a problem for poor people in the Western countries and the situation is even worse in developing countries. There is a need for reform in the health care system. Many poor people are not covered by health insurance. Critical care medicine in high technology hospitals are only for a small group of patients (Ham, 2004). The first step should be rationing in containing health care costs. Public health care resources are limited. It is not possible to satisfy all medical needs for all people at all times. An appropriate goal for developing countries is to provide basic health care for the people. Some luxury medical procedures must be left for individuals to purchase with their own resources. Â  A basic level of health care must be provided for all people. Providing the best care is practically impossible. The government can however provide a basic level of care. Prevention oriented and ordinary treatment oriented goals must be set for developing countries and their health care systems. Inexpensive medical prevention is more effective and appropriate for poor people. Finally there should be a system of support which should help people with special expensive medicine care. Special foundations should come to the rescue of poor people for emergency and life saving procedures (Cundiff, 2005). Conclusion The health and well being of poor communities is an issue confronting both developed and developing countries. Research has found links between poverty and the health of people. Inside the United States many poor people do not have health insurance. Some of them can’t even think of affording health insurance. They are more concerned with the basic amenities of life. People in developing countries are even worse off. They have access to state hospitals and clinics which do not have trained staff, prescription medicine and advanced hospital care (Cundiff, 2005). A low health literacy rate is also dangerous for the well being of people. It can have adverse negative economic and social impacts. They can die at from treatable causes and get hospitalized because of their lack of health literacy skills. They are also prone to suffering from mental diseases like anxiety and depression. Â  There is the need for health reform in the entire world. Governments must provide a basic level of health care to all citizens. Advanced hospital care must be made available by foundations and donations. Governments working in coordination with community support groups can effectively counter the affects of poverty and low education on the health care of poor people. Some health responsibilities and policies should be transferred to community groups. The international community must help poor countries in developing basic and adequate health care system. References Cutler, David M. (2004). Your Money Or Your Life: Strong Medicine for Americas Health Care System. US: Oxford University Press. Crichton, Anne (1997). Health Care: A Community Concern?. US: University of Calgary. Shi, Leiyu (2003). Delivering Health Care in America: A Systems Approach. US: Jones and Bartlett. Kling, Arnold S. (2004). Crisis of Abundance: Rethinking How We Pay for Health Care. US: Cato Institute. Ham, Christopher (2004). Health Care Reform: Learning from International Experience. US: McGraw-Hill Education. Cundiff, David E. (2005). The Right Medicine: How to Make Health Care Reform Work Today. US: Humana Press.

Determination of Alcohol Content Using Gas Chromatography

Determination of Alcohol Content Using Gas Chromatography 1.0  TITLE Determination of alcohol content in Tapai by using gas chromatography technique 2.0  INTRODUCTION Alcohol is an organic compound which contain hydroxyl functional group (-OH) that bonded to saturated carbon (C) atom. For centuries, alcohol has been used for many purposes for examples as fuels, to make drinks, as a solvent and as an industrial feedstock. Alcohol can give us many benefits if we use it in the right way but it also can give bad effects to us if we misuse it. Alcohol can be produced normally by using fermentation process. Fermentation process is a process which uses yeast as the catalyst to break down sugar or glucose into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Ethanol is the most common type of alcohol present from the process of fermentation. Yeast + glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide Tapai is one of the most general dessert or fermented food that can be found easily in East- and Southeast Asia such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei. Tapai can be made from different main ingredient such as glutinous rice, white rice and cassava. During preparation of Tapai, the ingredients are cleaned and washed before cooked. Cooked glutinous rice is then left to cool down at temperature 30oC. To produce a matured and good quality Tapai, it has to undergo fermentation for 3-4 days. Gas chromatography technique has been selected in this study to determine the amount of ethanol content in Tapai. A few aspects have been considered in choosing the right technique to be used. Since Tapai contains alcohol, the Halal issue has been rise in Muslim community whether it is allowed to be consumed or prohibited because of some of the similarities between Tapai and alcoholic beverages. 3.0  LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1  Fermentation Fermentation is a process of conversion of carbohydrates into alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acid by using yeast or bacteria as the catalysts. The yeast works to break down the carbohydrates or sugar. Fermentation refers to the chemical conversion of sugars to ethanol. It is a process which is commonly used in order to produce alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine. Besides that, fermentation process is very useful for preservation of food. It produces lactic acids which can make the food can be used in a long period of time. For an example, it is found in such sour foods and pickled cucumber, yogurt and kimchi. Yeast + glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide In Malaysia, fermented glutinous rice also known as Tapai is one of the most popular dessert among the Malaysian consumers. Tapai is a sweet or sour alcoholic taste and can be used as a dessert or traditional recipes. Tapai can be made from various types of carbohydrate sources, but commonly from cassava, glutinous rice and white rice. Yeast and sugar are used in the procedure to make Tapai. Fermented foods generally produce pleasant aroma, texture and have a good keeping quality under ambient environment. Fermented foods are prepared from raw materials. Yeast fermentation generally is an alcoholic fermentation which involves the production of ethanol. Southeast Asia produces 150 million tones of paddy annually. Rice wine is one of the most popular sources to make alcoholic beverages in Asian country. In Malaysia and Indonesia, cassava tubers commonly used as fermented foods because of the high carbohydrates content in it. To make Tapai, the first step is soaked the rice in a gallon of water and left overnight. Then, the soaked rice is steamed for 45 minutes. Cool the steamed rice to body temperature. After that, the Tape Starter is sprinkled on the rice and mixed for a minute to distribute uniformly. The starter and rice have to be mixed well to prevent the spoilage. Half cup of sugar is mixed with water. The rice is packed in layers into a jar and every layer is sprinkle with some sugar water. This step is taken to help the fermentation process to start. The rice is left for fermentation process to take place for 2-4 days. When the rice already produces a bit of liquid at the bottom of the container or jar and distinctive smell is produced, the fermentation process is complete. There are 3 stages of fermentation which are Initial Stage (Lag Phase), Middle Stage (Log to Stationary Phases) and Latter Stage (Death Phase). Initial stage is important to make natto bacilli grow sufficiently. The temperature is set at body temperature 37-40oC. This temperature is an optimum temperature for the bacteria to grow. During the log phase, natto bacilli release a great deal of heat produced by the fermentation process. Sufficient oxygen must be supplied during this phase to make the process runs smoothly. After the stationary phase, the natto bacilli reach the death phase. It undergoes autolysis gradually. 11% of glutamic acid is deliberated 16 hours after the fermentation process started. Organic acids are synthesized in this phase. Theoretically, fermented food is not considered fully safe since they are prepared under uncontrolled conditions. Nevertheless, natural processes have been related with a few documented cases of food induced disease. Natural processed food has been known to cause serious food poisoning compared to prepared packed food because the production of prepared packed food is been done in a factory with a regular monitoring from the quality control unit. Figure 1:Process of making Tapai 3.2  Comparison between Tapai and alcoholic beverages The process of Tapai production is more likely to alcoholic beverages production where both of these productions have to go through the fermentation process. Both processes use yeast in order to produce alcohol. There might be some differences for alcohol content in wine and Tapai since the other processes except fermentation which are used for alcoholic beverages but not in Tapai production. For Tapai production, the process takes place naturally while for alcoholic beverages production requires temperature control where there are hot fermentation and cool fermentation. Cronk et al. Went and Geerligs were the first person reported to segregate and identify the essential microorganisms for the fermentation of Tapai in 1895. In order to produce a good Tapai, a mixture of Candida oryzae and Endomycopsis burtonii with 17% of reducing sugar and 2.7% of ethanol are needed. For wine and grapes, the healthy properties can be achieved due to the presence of antioxidants like polyphenols. From a chapter entitled â€Å"Tapai processing in Malaysia: A technology in Transition† by Zahara Marican and Yeoh Quee Lan in a book edited by KH Steinkraus entitle â€Å"Industrialization of indigenous fermented foods†, the authors write about the making of Tapai in Malaysia. There are some points that can be considered as useful information from the quote on page 252 â€Å"Tapai fermentation is not an anaerobic process and this partly accounts for the low alcohol content. Furthermore the fermentation is normally arrested before all of the sugars are fermented, as the desired end product should not be alcoholic if it is to be consumed by those opposed to alcohol consumption for religious or other reasons†. There is some information gained where Tapai fermentation is not an anaerobic. In the beginning, the enzymes are release to breakdown the sugars by the process of enzyme hydrolysis. This explained why Tapai tasted sweet. Besides that, Tapai production might be a little different compared to the wine or beer fermentation even though alcohol is produced and sugar is used. For Tapai fermentation, the theory of solid substrate fermentation is involved. Each of the white rice or glutinous rice is coated with a thin layer of sticky liquid to make it difficult for oxygen to diffuse or penetrate. The reaction of the sugar molecules and the liquid caused the Tapai sticky or viscous by the interaction of hydrogen bond between the water molecules and sugar molecules. Furthermore, the low alcohol content in Tapai is caused by the slightly open or not an air tight packing and high room temperature which resulting in the vaporization of alcohol and the alcohols are escaped to the environment. The alcohols as the fermentation product have a short chain and gave a lower evaporation point and boiling point. Alcoholic beverages contain high amount of ethanol compared to Tapai. Beer contains approximately 6% of ethanol, wine contains 7 to 24% v/v of ethanol, whisky contains 35% of ethanol and Tapai contains only about 5% of ethanol. Besides ethanol, alcoholic beverages contain another chemical composition such as water, glycerine, pestins, acids, polyphenols and some flavours. The least amount of ethanol contained in Tapai is caused by the volatilities of ethanol from the fermented rice due to non-air tight container. Figure 2:Production of alcoholic beverages 3.3  Analysis of ethanol in fragmented rice using many techniques Recently, many researches have been made in order to determine ethanol content in fragmented food such as wine and Tapai. Various types of techniques can be used for ethanol determination such as enzymatic method, biosensor, high liquid performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy and flow injection analysis. 3.3.1  High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis was used to quantify the presence of individual phenolic compounds using an HPLC system consisting of a Shimadzu Prominence LC – 20A, with an LC-20AT quaternary pump, a SIL 20 auto sampler– A, a DGU-20A5 on-line degasser, a CBM-20A integrator and a SPD-20AV DAD detector. HPLC technique has been designed to determine the amount of ethanol produced and amount of unwanted byproducts produced during the fermentation process. HPLC can produce the shortest analysis time and maintaining enough resolution between components for proper quantification and identification. By using this technique, all components can be analyzed less than 10 minutes. 3.3.2  Short wave-near infrared (SW-NIR) Short wave-near infrared (SW-NIR) is one of the type of NIR. SW-NIR is one of the techniques that can be used to detect alcohol content in beverages and food products. The region of SW-NIR is between 700 to 1100 nm (Fu et al., 2012). The SW-NIR is suitable for non-destructive or non-invasive analysis of biological and biomedical materials (Ozaki et al., 1992; Ã…  aÃ… ¡iĆ¡ Ozaki, 2001; Sato et al., 2000). The SW-NIR can penetrate more intensely into a sample with less heating effect compared than long-wave NIR and the obstruction arising from the intense water bands can be diminished (Reeves III, 1994). Tungsten lamps, LEDs or the sunlight can be utilized as the SW-NIR light source and the light can be transmitted through glass optical fibers (Fu et al., 2012). In order to determine the content of alcohol in aqueous samples, temperature factor needs to be emphasized (Wà ¼lfert et al., 1998; Barboza Poppi, 2003). It is because temperature can cause a change in the vibratio n spectra (Fu et al., 2012). Figure 2 below shows the schematic diagram of the multichannel SW-NIR spectrometer module. Figure 2:Schematic diagram of the multichannel SW-NIR spectrometer module 3.3.3  Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) In determination of alcohol, FTIR had been used for the quality control of alcoholic drinks such as spirit drinks and beer. FTIR with combination of multivariate data analysis can determine the essential compound quantitatively (Lachenmeier, 2007). Apart from that, Vonach et al. (1998) also stated that the combination of HPLC-FTIR can be used to determine the components of wine such as acetic, fructose, succinic, glycerol, ethanol, glucose, citric, lactic, malic and tartaric acid directly when used a real wine as a sample. By using FTIR, to obtain the information about the product, for example the chemical composition, possibly we can make it within in a short time. Liquid Fourier transform-middle infrared spectrometry can be used to analyze wine in a 90 s (Patz et al., 2004). Nowadays FTIR can give us advantages in order to determine and analyze the beverages because it can help us to reduce the time cost, and at the same time, it is also contribute for a good precision and accuracy when dealing with the parameters (Moreira et al., 2004). Furthermore, according to Lachenmeier (2007), a simple sample preparation is needed when dealing with FTIR spectroscopy compared to the other analytical methods. 3.3.4  Other spectroscopy Raman spectroscopy is not a preferable technique in determining ethanol content in Tapai due to the expensive instrument required. As HPLC method is low sensitivity but accurate weighing process and the sample distillation are required, HPLC is not a good technique in this study. NIR spectroscopy is time consuming in establishing calibration curves and has low accuracy. It can be disturbed by other alcohol in the sample (Wang et al., 2003). 3.4  Determination of ethanol in Tapai by using Gas Chromatography Gas-liquid chromatography is one of the most sophisticated analytical techniques in spectroscopy. Gas chromatography becomes more preferable because of its utilization of electronic digital data-processing equipment for accurate qualitative and quantitative analysis. Traditional ethanol analysis methods are distillation and mass determination. These methods include small accuracies because it can be interfere by other component in the sample. In order to evaluate the accuracy and precision of the gas-liquid chromatography, the ethanol standards and typical Tapai samples are necessary to be analyzed (B.Stackler and E.N.Christensen., 1974) To analyze ethanol contents in alcoholic beverages, Bouthilet et al. had made a packed GC method. Yet, the method needs at least 100mL of sample and distillation as the pretreatment process. These official gas liquid chromatography methods can be adjusted with different sample preparation procedures when dealing with different samples. These samples require distillation or dilution as the pretreatment process. By using packed column, lower resolution and interference by other alcohols in alcoholic beverages still exist. When capillary gas chromatography is used for determining the ethanol contents in alcoholic samples, time-consuming pretreatment procedures are still required. The capillary GC method is one of the most important techniques because of its advantage of high resolution and sensitivity (Wang et al., 2003). Wang et al. (2004) has studied the gas chromatography coupled with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) to detect the ethanol content in alcoholic beverages. A selected column used is mega-pore capillary column (CP-Wax 58 CB). Acetonitrile was chosen as the internal standard for ethanol and, 2-pentanol is used for methanol. This selection is due to the water solubility of acetonitrile is more rather than 2-pentanol. Direct injection GC coupling with dual internal standards was used to determine ethanol and methanol content can be obtained less than 12 min. Due to the success in the previous study, Brill and Wagner (2012) have performed the new method using GC-MS in order to detect the alcohol content that has been adapted by Wang et al.’s (2004) experiment that used capillary gas chromatography together with FDI detector. This further study is quite costly, but it is worth since the accuracy is high. The column in this study was replaced by polar capillary column instead of mega-pore column in the previous study. 0.2  µL splitless injections were chosen to directly inject the samples to the GC-MS. Helium set at pressure set at 7.35 psi and 1mL/min of flow rate acted as the carrier gas in GC-MS. The polar VF-WAXms selected was the reliable because the samples could be run in 15 minute intervals. Capillary gas chromatography is a simple and rapid method that developed to determine ethanol content in alcoholic beverages using megapore polar column (CPWax58 CB, 30 m  ¥ 0.53 mm) with direct injection gas chromatography. Contrary to packed GLC method, distillation or stepwise dilution of samples were not necessary by the method developed in this study. In conclusion, gas chromatography method is the most suitable and quick method for determination of ethanol contents in alcoholic beverages with complex alcohol contents and small sample amount. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is a non-harmful environmentally pre-concentration technique which is clean, selective, rapid, efficient, simple and solvent-free. The derivation of polyphenols allowed non-volatile compounds to be converted into volatile derivatives, thus improving the separation, selectivity or sensitivity of SPME–GC determination. This step can be performed in the sample solution prior to sampling, on the SPME fibre coating or during desorption in the GC injection port. For on-fibre derivation, the chemical agent has to be loaded on the fibre prior to or after analyte extraction. Commonly, the analytes are first extracted and then the fiber is exposed to the vapour of the derivatizing agent. The coupling of GC and SPME has been used to determine resveratrol isomers and the total free resveratro was also determined by direct-exposure-probe positive-ion chemical ionization mass spectrometry. However, no references have been found to the use of the hyphenated technique SPME–GC–MS for the determination of polyphenol mixtures (Pilar Vinas et al., 2009). 4.0  PROBLEM STATEMENTS The purpose of this study is to determine the most suitable and appropriate method for alcohol determination in the sample used which is fermented rice or commonly called as Tapai. Tapai is a traditional dessert or fermented food frequently found in East and Southeast Asia. Nowadays, Tapai has been established and being promoted to many countries. Determination of ethanol perhaps is the most important analysis in the fermentation industry for the quality control. It is necessary for the industry to use the most accurate and easiest method in order to check the alcohol composition in the products manufactured before sending them to the markets. Besides that, this study is fundamental in order to determine the Halal limits for alcohol content in the sample. The consumption of Tapai had raised the Halal issue to Muslim community since it has similar alcohol content with beer which is 5%. So, the study should offer the method that can give the short period for the detection and the easiest way to handle the experiment or the test include the easy sample preparation with the accurate results. 5.0  OBJECTIVES These are few objectives that have been identified in order to deal up with the problem statement and carried out the research on determination of alcohol content in Tapai by using gas chromatography spectroscopy. To develop gas chromatography method with the best accuracy compared to other methods for alcohol detection in the sample. To determine the lower limit of detection (LOD) of alcohol. To identify the amount of ethanol content in the sample.

Tort, Negligence and Nuisance Claims :: Tort Law

A number of aspects of liability rise from this case study and each one will be discussed. With regards to the headaches suffered by Karl, it is necessary to look at private nuisance. Negligence is disregarded as it is assumed from the details in the case study that the headaches suffered are not so serious as to cause personal injury, it is just described as ‘mere discomfort’. Such a claim under the law of nuisance requires three factors to be fulfilled. The first being a continuous interference. This is shown in De Keyser’s Royal Hotel v Spicer Bros Ltd (1914) 30 TLR 257. From the case study one can assume that it is a continuing interfering act and not a one off. Secondly, the interference must be unlawful or unreasonable. This is up to the claimant to prove. The rule for this is sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas (So use your own property as not to injure your neighbour's). The locality in this instance reflects the unreasonableness of Jane’s actions. It occurred in a residential area and therefore such Gases were not to be expected. The duration of the act will also be taken into account. Because Jane is a young inventor it is assumed her work is an ongoing process and not a one off as explained above. The seriousness is also considered. In Walter v Selfe (1851), Knight-Bruce V C said â€Å"an inconvenience materially interfering with the ordinary comfort physically of human existence, not merely according to elegant or dainty modes and habits of living, but according too the plain sober and simple notions among the English people.† This shows Jane’s actions would be deemed unreasonable, heightened by the fact that the incident occurred in a housing area, not an industrial estate. The sensitivity of the defendant, the utility of his conduct and a malicious aspect may be also discussed but this is not relevant in this case. Thus the second aspect of unlawful or unreasonable interference is established.

The Life Work, and Creativity of Albert Camus :: Biographies

The Life Work, and Creativity of Albert Camus "Yes, I have a country -- the French language." -Albert Camus Albert Camus was a man consumed by three images--his mother, the Mediterranean, and death. His greatest creative achievement, his writing, would center around these images, images that would be transformed into great ideas through simple and refined words. Albert Camus lived the life of the creative genius according to Howard Gardner's model of creativity. His writing has left a lasting impression on the literary world and his life has left a fascinating legacy on the notion of creativity. Childhood Albert Camus was born on November 1, 1913 in Mondovi, a village in the Algerian interior. His ancestors on his father's side arrived after the 1830 conquest of Algeria from France and his mother's side came from Spain. A certain amount of pride accompanied Camus' mixed racial descent. Yet, it was only in Algeria that Camus would ever truly belong. Mondovi was surrounded by vineyards and it was there that Camus' father, Lucien Auguste Camus, found employment. He worked on a grape farm helping in the manufacture of wine. Camus never had the chance to know his father, for he died before Camus had even reached the age of one. He was called off to war where he was fatally wounded at the Marne. Camus thus loathed bloodshed and was constantly haunted by the idea that his generation was cursed by wars. Because his mother, Catherine, spoke so little of his father, Camus knew virtually nothing of the man that he had been. The one detail that his mother did recount of his father was that he had once attended an execution, He watched the death of a mass murderer and yet afterwards he "threw himself on the bed and began to vomit" (McCarthy, 11). Camus never forgot this image and would later write against and about the death penalty. Catherine, Albert, and his older brother Lucien moved in with her family after the death of Lucien Auguste to the Algiers suburb of Belcourt in the working-class area, crowded with apartment buildings and factories. An emotional poverty reined over Albert's life in Belcourt. His grandmother, the talkative, strong-minded queen of the household, became his principle care-taker. Though Camus admired his grandmother's pride, he found her to be harsh and selfish, and he feared her. She was greatly critical of her daughter for having married a man who had died so young, leaving her alone with two children.

The Jungle :: Socialism, Sinclair

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout American history, people that have challenged themselves with a cause have had at least some control of major issues present during their lives. Upton Sinclair was one of these influential people. Using his talent for writing, Sinclair wrote his most successful novel, The Jungle. This novel stressed a need to improve conditions for industrial workers, and exposed the faults of Capitalism in order to promote his cause; which was Socialism. Sinclair achieved his goal of promoting Socialism with the story of Jurgis Rudkus and his family. By describing the harsh system in which workers were consumed by, Sinclair uncovered faults in Capitalism, and inversely promoted Socialism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Sinclair’s story, he vividly described the family and the disagreeable situation they were in. The accounts of the meatpacking industry, developed mainly on truth from personal experience, were filled with examples of an unjust work system, corruption by employers, and the resulting low living conditions. For example, Packingtown laborers would be forced to work repeatedly faster, only to see their wages cut numerous times. Also, families became impoverished, causing the children to work. As a result, Elzbieta's son, Stanislovas, was eaten alive by rats. Such major problems in the Capitalist system were focused on throughout the novel. The problems in the meatpacking industry related to issues concerning the entire industrial labor force. Sinclair continued to show that these problems could have been solved by Socialism. The fact that Jurgis joined the Socialist Party and was dedicated to improving his surroundings was how Sinclair displayed the fact that Socialism was a more practical system. The Jungle :: Socialism, Sinclair   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout American history, people that have challenged themselves with a cause have had at least some control of major issues present during their lives. Upton Sinclair was one of these influential people. Using his talent for writing, Sinclair wrote his most successful novel, The Jungle. This novel stressed a need to improve conditions for industrial workers, and exposed the faults of Capitalism in order to promote his cause; which was Socialism. Sinclair achieved his goal of promoting Socialism with the story of Jurgis Rudkus and his family. By describing the harsh system in which workers were consumed by, Sinclair uncovered faults in Capitalism, and inversely promoted Socialism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Sinclair’s story, he vividly described the family and the disagreeable situation they were in. The accounts of the meatpacking industry, developed mainly on truth from personal experience, were filled with examples of an unjust work system, corruption by employers, and the resulting low living conditions. For example, Packingtown laborers would be forced to work repeatedly faster, only to see their wages cut numerous times. Also, families became impoverished, causing the children to work. As a result, Elzbieta's son, Stanislovas, was eaten alive by rats. Such major problems in the Capitalist system were focused on throughout the novel. The problems in the meatpacking industry related to issues concerning the entire industrial labor force. Sinclair continued to show that these problems could have been solved by Socialism. The fact that Jurgis joined the Socialist Party and was dedicated to improving his surroundings was how Sinclair displayed the fact that Socialism was a more practical system.

Nuclear Power: A Radioactive Waste of Time Essay

For many years now, technology has strived to discover alternative energy sources that are cheap, efficient and not harmful to the environment. Nuclear power is one of the alternative energy sources that technology has discovered. There are many views on whether or not it meets the aforementioned criteria, but the major concern when it comes to nuclear power is the safety issue. Is nuclear power safe? There is sufficient evidence to prove that it is very unsafe, including past nuclear power related catastrophes, the by-product of nuclear power, and the fact that nuclear power plants are a vulnerable target for terrorists. Firstly, the amount at risk when it comes to nuclear power is overwhelming, accidental meltdowns have the ability to cause instant death to many people, and have a life time effect on many more. On April 26th, 1986, an accident happened at the Chernobyl nuclear plant in Ukraine, and it caused a meltdown in the reactor. The results were catastrophic; the meltdown released more radioactivity than the atomic bombs that dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. During the disaster, 56 people died and about 600,000 people were exposed to high levels of radiation. The radiation spread to places as far as Scotland. _Refer to figure 1._ There are arguments that the Chernobyl meltdown was a result of old technology and mismanagement. Yet, since Chernobyl, according to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission there have been nearly 200 near misses in the US in which the fuel rods at the core of reactor came close to melting down. Nuclear power gambles with our lives, our health and the environment, an accident at work for someone can end the life of many. The nuclear waste that comes with nuclear energy is a major concern for the environment. On average, a uranium ore contains only 0.1% uranium. The majority of the materials extracted during uranium ore mining is waste containing other hazardous radioactive and toxic substances. Most nuclear  reactors require one specific form of uranium, uranium-235 (U-235). This form represents only 0.7% of natural uranium. To increase the concentration of U-235, the uranium extracted from ore goes through an enrichment process, resulting in a small quantity of usable ‘enriched’ uranium and huge volumes of waste. Enriched uranium is then put into fuel rods and transported to nuclear reactors where electricity is generated. Nuclear power plant operation transforms uranium fuel into a rich, highly-toxic and dangerous mixture of radioactive elements, such as plutonium. Plutonium is the manmade element used in nuclear bombs, only a small amount is needed to bring about a devastating outcome; this deadly mixture remains dangerous for about 240,000 years. Furthermore, the radioactive waste produced emits large amounts of hazardous radiation. Even a couple of minutes of exposure to high-level waste can easily result in fatal doses of radiation. Radioactive waste therefore needs to be reliably stored for 240,000 years, one should take into account that humans have been on earth for only 200,000 years! Another problem is that there is no reliable spot to store away this waste for such a long period of time. Reprocessing of nuclear waste was supposed to be a solution to the problem; however, the reprocessing plants use a process that actually leads to more hazardous waste flows. Not only is there the long term radioactive waste to worry about, but also the depleted uranium (DU). Currently there is about 1.2 million tonnes of depleted uranium stored without any foreseen use in the future. _Refer to figure 2._ The American and British governments used DU as armour for tanks and piercing tips for munitions in the Gulf War, veterans of this war have had health problems due to their exposure to DU. Even their children have suffered from their exposure to DU. Hence the process that it takes to produce nuclear power and all the waste that comes as a by-product is a massive and dangerous waste of time. The radioactive waste can be harmful to our health and our environment, and without a safe and reliable storage method we should realize the more nuclear power we process the larger the problem of nuclear waste. The nuclear industry may argue that nuclear power is the solution to global warming and the climate crisis by promoting nuclear power as a â€Å"low carbon†Ã‚  solution. Today’s world is hooked on coal, oil and gas; burning these fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, the main cause of global warming and climate change. Furthermore, oil and gas are finite, so a long term solution to the problem is desperately needed. However, nuclear power is not the answer, as nuclear power can only provide electricity; it cannot meet our transport or heating energy needs. Nuclear power generates around 15% of the Earth’s electricity, but only 6.5% of the world’s total energy supply. _Refer to figure 3._ Additionally, according to the Energy Scenario by the International Energy Agency, even if existing world nuclear power capacity could be quadrupled by 2050, its share of world energy consumption would still be below 10%. This would reduce carbon dioxide emissions by less than 4%. Hence nuclear power clearly isn’t a solution to global warming. Nuclear power increases the risk of nuclear weapons potential of spreading to other countries, of terrorists gaining material to make nuclear bombs and of potential terrorist attacks on nuclear facilities or transports. Reactors have not been built to withstand the impact of a large aircraft; nuclear waste transports are even more vulnerable to terrorists. A study by Dr. Edwin Lyman of the Union of Concerned Scientists finds that a potential terrorist attack on the Indian Point nuclear plant in the US could lead to 518,000 long-term deaths from cancer and as many as 44,000 near-term deaths from acute radiation poisoning. These numbers are from a potential terrorist attack on one plant, over half a million people will be killed because of nuclear power. It is blatant that nuclear power is unsafe, even if a reactor core doesn’t meltdown accidentally; a terrorist could cause the same results that a regular meltdown would. Not to mention the black market that has developed to nuclear materials. A typical power plant produces enough plutonium annually for 10-15 crude nuclear bombs. Experiments conducted by the government of the United States have shown that several nuclear weapons can be built in a matter of weeks using ordinary spent fuel from light water reactors (the most common type of reactors). Another study by the US government revealed that a country with only a minimal industrial base could secretly and quickly construct a small plant just 40 metres long, capable of  extracting about a bomb’s worth of plutonium every day. Hence nuclear power is unsafe and can lead to massive destruction at the hands of terrorists. In conclusion, nuclear power is an unsafe for many reasons. Firstly, there have been nuclear meltdowns in the past which yielded devastating results, and many more close calls. Secondly, there is no solution for radioactive waste which is harmful to us and our environment. Also, nuclear power doesn’t help our environment through its low carbon solution. Lastly, nuclear power plants are vulnerable to terrorist attacks, which puts the safety of many at risk. Hence, nuclear power is unsafe! Works Cited Greenpeace International. (2009). Nuclear power. Retrieved January 6, 2011, from http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/nuclear-power.pdf Sterner, B. W. ABC Says Nuclear Reactor Unsafe – The Tech. The Tech – MIT’s Oldest and Largest Newspaper. Retrieved January 6, 2011, from http://tech.mit.edu/V125/N46/nukesafety.html Nuclear Energy. Educational Web Sites. Retrieved January 6, 2011, from http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Snuclear.htm Physicsworld. Do we need nuclear power? Retrieved January 6, 2011, from http://www.physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/128 Pros and cons of nuclear power | Time for change. Retrieved January 6, 2011, from http://timeforchange.org/pros-and-cons-of-nuclear-power-and-sustainability This contamination will have an effect on several generations to come. FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2 The process in which nuclear power is generated, steps 1-5. FIGURE 3 Nuclear Power only generates electricity, hence why it can’t be a solution to climate change.

Conceptual Framework & Ethical Dispositions

| The Association of American Educators' (AAE) four principles of ethical teachers and GCU's Teacher Candidate | |Proficiencies/Professional Dispositions of the Conceptual Framework are very similar. The purpose of seven of the principles and proficiencies | |that overlap are High Expectations Respect for the Diversity of Others Fairness Professional Conduct Reflection Curiosity Honesty Compassion | |Advocacy Dedication. | |Principle I of The Association of American Educators' four principles of ethical teachers is Ethical Conduct Toward Students. Listed within that| |section are the following numbered points: | |2. The professional educator does not intentionally expose the student to disparagement. | |4. The professional educator makes a constructive effort to protect the student from conditions detrimental to learning, health, or safety. | |These two items would serve the same purpose as the Advocacy professional disposition expected by GCU. Educators are expected to be student | |advocates because in many cases we are the only voice a student may have. It is oftentimes that a teacher must, in a certain capacity, act as | |the students parent and assist in resolving issues that are fair and just to the student. Fairness, one of the many proficiencies GCU expects is| |quite reminiscent of the remaining items within Principle I: Ethical Conduct Towards Students. The remaining items are: | |1. The professional educator deals considerately and justly with each student, and seeks to resolve problems, including discipline, according | |to law and school policy. |3. The professional educator does not reveal confidential information concerning students, unless required by law. | |5. The professional educator endeavors to present facts without distortion, bias, or personal prejudice. | |The purpose of these expectations is to ensure the equal treatment of all of the students. We have all heard the stories of â€Å"teachers pets. | |These expectations are to prevent a teacher from manifesting personal feelings for a student into unfair advan tages during certain situations. |PRINCIPLE II:   Ethical Conduct toward Practices and Performance within AAE's document includes the following: | |1. The professional educator applies for, accepts, or assigns a position or a responsibility on the basis of professional qualifications, and | |adheres to the terms of a contract or appointment. | |3. The professional educator continues professional growth. | |These sub-principals serve the same purpose as Dedication within GCU's dispositions. As an educator the worst thing we can do as an educator is | |to stop growing; professionally or spiritually. When I decided to be an educator I chose to be the best educator I could possibly be. We are | |expected to be the best for our students. | |All of the principles and proficiencies within The Association of American Educators' (AAE) four principles of ethical teachers and GCU's Teacher| |Candidate Proficiencies/Professional Dispositions of the Conceptual Framework are necessary. These are expected of us as educators because they | |are critical in nurturing our students to be the best they can be. | | |